Glossary of Theological Terms

• A
• B
• C
• D
• E
• F
• G
• H
• I
• J
• K
• L
• M
• N
• O
• P
• Q
• R
• S
• T
• U
• V
• W
• X
• Y
• Z

A

Ancient Near East

The cultural world of the Bible stretched from Egypt to Mesopotamia (present day Iraq). It formed part of the Fertile Crescent. Ancient Israel shared many of the same beliefs and cultural practices of its neighbours and study of these ancient cultures contributes much to the study of the Bible.

Aramaic

A language belonging to the same family as Hebrew. After the Exile, Hebrew ceased to be the spoken language of Palestine, but it survived for religious and scholarly purposes. The every day language of Jesus was the Galilean dialect of Aramaic. Some parts of the OT (portions of the Books of Daniel and Ezra) were written in Aramaic. A form of Aramaic called Syriac continues to exist as the liturgical and spoken language of some Christian groups in the Middle East. The Syriac translation of the New Testament conveys the flavour of the language of Jesus, hence its importance in the NT study.

Archaeology and the Bible

Scientific archaeology is a relative new comer to biblical studies. Apart from earlier chance discoveries (e.g. the Rosetta Stone or the cuneiform tablets containing the Epic of Gilgamesh), methods for the systematic exploration and excavation of ancient sites have only developed within the past 100 years or so. Archaeology is interested in the material remains of human culture e.g. buildings, pottery, other artefacts. While it can never prove 'the truth of the bible', archaeology plays an important role in reconstructing a picture of the human world within which the biblical narrative was formed and can way shed valuable light on the text.

Apocalypse, apocalyptic

A genre (q.v.) of writing which flourished approximately from 200 BC to 200 AD. Apocalypse comes from a Greek word meaning to unveil or reveal. An apocalypse is usually an account of a heavenly vision in which the visionary is given a glimpse of the last times. This final time is usually ushered in by a period of struggle or tribulation in which God's people are at the mercy of the forces of evil The purpose of the apocalypse is to convey a message of hope: despite the power of evil, God holds the world in his care and will ensure that good triumphs. Examples of apocalyptic in the bible are parts of the Book of Daniel (OT) and the whole of the Book of Revelation (NT).

Apocrypha

Greek : 'The hidden'. Name given to the literature of Judaism and Early Christianity which imitates the style of biblical books but which is not included in the canon of sacred scripture (q.v.). Examples of NT Apocryphal books are The Gospel of Thomas and the Protevangelium of James. Examples of OT apocrpha are The Book of Enoch and the Psalms of Solomon. It is the term also given by the Reformed tradition to the books which Catholics call 'deutero- canonical' (q.v.)

 

B

 

C

Commentary

A book which comments on and explains aspects of the biblical text. A commentary may be either a commentary on the whole bible (e.g. New Jerome) or on one specific book.

Canon of Scripture

The list of books which are contained in the Old and New Testaments

Canonical Criticism

A method of studying biblical texts which considers them in terms of their place in the canon, their present form (rather than any hypothetically reconstructed earlier form) and their relationship to other texts in the bible.

Concordance

A book which lists all the uses of words in a text, especially the Bible.

Controversy Story

Name given by form critical (q.v.) scholars to a type of story in which Jesus engages in controversy with opponents over issues such as fasting, paying tithes, the right to forgive sins. A typical controversy story reaches its climax in a saying by Jesus (e.g. 'Render to Caesar the things that are Caesar's and to God the things that are God's' in controversy about payment of taxes to Rome).

Critical Method, Biblical Criticism

'Criticism' in this context means rigorous methodical study applied to the text of the bible as an ancient text written in a foreign language. It does not mean setting out to find fault with the text or with the original authors. Modern biblical criticism is marked by a great diversity of method e.g. Feminist Criticism, Historical Criticism, Rhetorical Criticism, Social Science Criticism, Textual Criticism, etc.

D

Dead Sea Scrolls

In 1947, a collection of ancient Jewish texts was found in a cave at Qumran, near the Dead Sea. In subsequent campaings, other texts were found in eleven caves at Qumran, and in other places near the Dead Sea. The texts can be divided into three main groups - (a) biblical texts (b) commentaries on biblical texts (c) the rules, prayers and other literature of a Jewish group, probably the Essenes (q.v.), which lived at Qumran from about 100 BC to about 70 AD. The scrolls are of great importance first because they are the oldest biblical texts so far known. Second, the non-biblical texts shed light on the way of life and teachings of a little-known Jewish sect from around the time of Jesus. Third, the scrolls contain some interesting parallels to Early Christian teaching and practice.

Deutero-Canonical

From the Greek meaning 'second canon'. Term given to the disputed books of the Old Testament which Catholics and Orthodox regard as sacred scripture but which the Protestant tradition calls 'apocrypha' (q.v.). These books are Judith, Tobit, Baruch, Sirach, Wisdom, 1 and 2 Maccabees, as well as additions to the Books of Esther and Daniel.

Deutero-Pauline

Letters Name sometmes given to three Pauline letters (Ephesians, Colossians and 2 Thessalonians) which some scholars believe were written by a hand other than Paul's, possibly some years after his death.

E

Epistle

Letter. The NT contains letters from Paul, Peter, John and Jude addressed to individuals or early Christian communities.

Essenes

Strict Jewish semi-monastic sect in Palestine in the time of Jesus. Although not all Essenes lived there, Qumran (q.v.) was the desert head-quarters of the group.

Exegesis

The explanation of all the relevant aspects of a text, based on a close reading whether of a single verse or of a whole chapter or book.Exegesis includes looking at any text-critical (q.v.) issues that arise (e.g. variants that might affect meaning), as well as its grammar, language and vocabulary. The exegete (person performing the exegesis) explores in detail as many dimensions of the text as possible, including its theology, its poetic structure, its historical setting etc.On the basis of a close reading of this kind, it will be possible to move on to the next stage, the interpretation of the text.

Exodus

The story of Israel's escape from slavery in Egypt through God's might deeds at the Sea of Reeds. It is told in the first 15 chapters of the Book of Exodus. Exodus is the foundational event of Jewish faith, celebrated annually at the Feast of Passover. In the Christian liturgy, Jesus' death is seen as a Passover from death to life, and the passage of the individual Christian through the waters of Baptism is described in terms of Exodus.

F

Feminist Criticism

An approach to the biblical text using the insights of modern feminism which explores the presence / absence of women in biblical texts of both Testaments and the implications of these texts for believing women and men of today.

Fertile Crescent

Name given in the geography of the Ancient Near East (q.v.) to the strip of habitable land between Egypt and Mesopotamia along the Mediterranean coast and great river valleys. The presence of water and pasture made for extensive human settlement and it became one of the chief trading arteries of the ancient world.

Form Criticism

The study of biblical texts which concentrates on their literary form - e.g. miracle story, poem, royal psalm.

Fourth Gospel

Alternative name for the Gospel according to John, the fourth in the traditional list.

G

Galilee

The northern region of Palestine.

Gattung

German word, equivalent of 'genre' below.

Genre, Literary

An important first step in the study of biblical texts is identifying the literary genre or type of writing to which a passage belongs. The genre of the whole text should be identified (Gospel, Epistle, history, collection of legal texts, Prophetical Book etc). Next, one should identify the literary type or form of the smaller unit being studied (e.g. proverb, parable, wisdom saying etc).

Gospel

An early Christian writing which recounts in narrative form the life and teachings of Jesus. Although not biographies of Jesus in the modern sense, the Gospels are close to the conventions of ancient biography. They draw on the oral tradition and the earliest written documents of the Christian Community, and witness to the Church's belief that Jesus is the Son of God, Saviour and Messiah.

Greek

The original language of the New Testament and of several books of the Old (e.g.Wisdom, Maccabees).

H

Hebrew

The original language of the greater part of the Old Testament (see also Aramaic and Greek).

Hellenistic World

Following the conquests of Alexander the Great (333 BC), Greek cultural styles, language and institutions spread rapidly around the Mediterranean and beyond. They remained the dominant international style for hundreds of years. A simplified form of Greek (koine or common) became the international language, much as English is today. The Roman Empire built on, but did not substantially replace, the dominant role of Hellenistic culture and koine Greek.. The title over the cross of Jesus 'was written in Hebrew (the local language), Greek (the international language) and Latin (the official language of Roman administration)' (John 19:20).

Hermeneutics

The process of the interpretation of texts. The starting point of interpretation is exegesis (q.v.). Hermeneutics is concerned with the original meaning of the text, but in function of the promise that such meaning holds for individual readers and believing communities today. See also feminist interpretation, historical critical approaches to Bible, historical Jesus, inspiration, Myth, Post-Modern Approaches, Social Science Approaches, etc.

Historical Critical Approach to Bible

The Bible is a collection of ancient documents, compiled in three dead languages, by many unknown authors who lived in widely differing historical, political and social settings within the world of the Ancient Near East (q.v.) and the Greek-speaking Mediterranean basin of the Roman Empire. The historical critical approach emphasises the distance which separates modern readers from the world of the bible and stresses the importance of situating the text in the world from which it emerged, with the assistance of all the available historical tools such as archaeology (q.v.), textual criticism (q.v.), study of languages, ancient literature, society and history. It tries to regain, in so far as that is possible, the intention of the ancient authors in compiling their texts and the message they intended to communicate to the original audience. The historical critical approach is an essential component in the study of the bible for theology. See also Post-Modern Approaches.

Historical Jesus, the Quest for For

Christian believers, the person of Jesus stands at the centre of the New Testament and at the heart of the Church's faith. What is distinctive about Christianity is its faith that the 'Word became flesh' at a precise time (early first century AD), place (Roman-occupied Palestine) in the human world. Jesus was a historical figure in that sense, not a timeless or mythical one. Given the impact of Christian faith, Jesus also belongs to the wider history of humanity. From the early 19th century, biblical scholars attempted to write a biography of Jesus using the critical methods then coming into vogue in the study of secular history in the European universities. Given the nature of the sources at their disposal (the Gospels and other early writings) and the ideological stance of some of the authors (Rationalist, distrust of the supernatural or church tradition), such a task proved impossible. The New Testament sources are not simply documents from an archive, they also express the Church's faith that Jesus is the Risen One, the Son of God and Saviour The first phase came to an end with Albert Schweitzer's admission of defeat in his Quest for the Historical Jesus (1903). It was resumed more fitfully in the 1960s (the 'New Quest'), and a fresh start was made from the 1970s onwards ('Third Quest'). Exploring the person and work of Jesus against the social, historical and religious world in which he lived is a fundamental element in NT study.

I

Infancy Narrative [Infancy Gospels]

The first two chapters of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke which describe the events surrounding the birth and childhood of Jesus. The Infancy Gospels differ in character from the main narrative of Jesus from Baptism to Resurrection.

Inspiration

The Church's belief that the Holy Scriptures are sacred books that witness to the Word of God and are written under the guidance of God's Holy Spirit. Inspiration is not a magic formula that by-passes the human process of composition: in the case of the biblical books this often entailed re-writing and reordering existing material over long periods of time.The Church has never defined how inspiration 'works'. The human authors are true authors, who used the skills they had, sometimes limited, sometimes rich.

Intertextuality

A term used in contemporary literary theory to describe the ways in which texts are related to one another, especially through techniques such as citation, allusion, echoing and parody. Many biblical texts have a strong intertextual relationship with others - e.g.the Christian Gospels often quote the OT verbatim, but there is a more complex and elusive relationships between them. An intertextual approach to the scriptures is valuable in emphasising the unity of OT and NT as the single witness to the Church's faith in the Word of God.

Ipsissima Verba

Latin for 'the very words'. A label sometimes given to words or expressions in the Gospel which indicate a scholar's opinion that one is here as close as possible to the exact words as spoken by Jesus. See redaction criticism.

Ipsissima Vox

'The very voice' [of Jesus]. See above. Scholarly opinion that in a particular text we may not have the exact words originally spoken by Jesus, but that the words are as close as can be to the kind of thing that Jesus would have said. See redaction criticism, Quest for the Historical Jesus.

J

Josephus (Flavius)

A Jewish writer who lived at the time of Jesus. His works are an important source of information about the political and social life of Palestine in the first century AD

Judaea

The southern portion of Palestine. It formed the Southern Kingdom with its capital in Jerusalem

 

K

 

L

Lectionary

A list of, or book containing, the biblical readings used in public worship.

Literary Criticism

The study of biblical texts that applies to them the methods of secular literary criticism, attending especially to their narrative and poetic features and how they communicate as works of art (see Post Modern Approaches to the Bible).

M

Masoretic Text

The text of the Hebrew Old Testament as standardised by the Masoretes, a medieval Jewish scribal school. The Hebrew alphabet has only a very rudimentary vowel system. The Masoretes indicated the vowels by a system of dots and strokes (pointing) above and below the consonants, and including a system of markings to indicate the chant of the text for the synagogue liturgy.

Messiah

Hebrew, meaning 'the anointed one'. 'Messiah' was applied to the kings of Israel who were anointed on taking up office (e.g. Psalm 1). It was sometimes also applied to priests. After the Exile, the hope that the dynasty of David would reclaim the throne of Judea led to the appearance of messianic oracles in the prophetical books. The Davidic line did not return to power and in the period of the Second Temple (q.v.), the messianic oracles were applied to figures whom it was hoped that God would send to save Israel from its enemies. The Dead Sea Scrolls (q.v.) and other Jewish texts contain references to such messianic figures. In the NT, some messianic texts and terms (e.g. Son of David) are applied to Jesus. The title 'Christ' is a Greek translation of Messiah: Jesus Christ means the same as Jesus the Messiah.

Midrash

From Hebrew word meaning commentary. A Jewish style of commenting on biblical texts.

Miracle Story

The name given to a story in which someone performs a miracle. The most important Old Testament miracle stories are associated with the prophets Elijah and Elisha (Kings 1 and 2). In the New Testament, the Gospels contain many stories of miracles performed by Jesus. In the Acts of the Apostles, miracles are performed by apostles like Peter and Paul. Miracle stories can be divided into healing miracles (the majority), exorcisms (casting out of evil spirits) and nature miracles (e.g. the multiplication of food, calming storms, walking on water).

Myth

The word myth has many meanings. In common speech, it often means a fairly tale or something that is untrue. Biblical scholarship, anthropology and literature take a more positive view of myth. Myth might be described as 'deep story' which approaches truth by way of symbol and imagination rather than 'tall story' or fantasy. One of the commonest themes in myth is the story of origins - the origins of human life, of a people etc. Myth projects the deepest human longings and struggles into narrative and poetic form. In this sense, it is a symbolic narrative. The Old Testament opens with a number of stories that are highly mythical in tone, namely, the story of the beginnings of the heavens and earth, of the sexual attraction between man and woman, human sin, loss of innocence, rivalry between brothers which leads to murder, the threat that all trace of human life might disappear from planet earth etc. Since human beings have a capacity for language, imagination and poetry, they explore the limits of the human world in other ways than by means of analytical and rational thought alone. Although the best myths go back to the origins of time and culture, people still find new ways of creating and using myth to interpret their deepest experiences as individuals and communities (e.g. cinema and the myth of the American West). While myth is not be taken literally, the images and structures of myth tease the imagination and provoke it into creative thought.

 

N

O

Oral Tradition

The passing on by word of mouth the stories, teachings and prayers of a community, either the community of Israel (in the Old Testament) or of Jesus and his first followers, the Church (New Testament).

P

Parable

A short narrative told by Jesus in which the hearers are invited to take stock of their lives by listening to the story, or in which Jesus unfolds some aspect of the mystery of the Kingdom of God.

Parallelism

The distinctive technique of Hebrew poetry which plays upon the words and ideas contained in the first half of the line in the second half, either to reinforce them (e.g. 'praise the Lord all you nations // acclaim him all you peoples') or to employ contrast ('with their mouth they utter blessing // in their hearts they curse') or to expand them ('you wife like a fruitful vine in the heart of your house // your children n like olive branches around your table').

Pastoral Letters

Three letters in the Pauline collection, (1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) which are addressed to leaders of NT churches rather than to communities. They treat at length the qualites of a good church leader or pastor. Some scholars believe they were written by someone other than Paul.

Patristic Exegesis

The study of the Biblical text as undertaken by the Fathers of the Church e.g. Origen, Jerome, Augustine, John Chrysostom. The Fathers knew the bible intimately and approached it with great reverence as the Word of God. Their starting point was the conviction that 'the New is concealed in the Old, and the Old is revealed in the New'. The Fathers attempted to allow the whole of scripture to bear upon the interpretation of a text (see Intertextuality). Much Patristic exegesis was done in the context of preaching the scriptures in the Liturgy. Patristic exegesis remains valuable as a witness to the Church's tradition of reading the bible.

Pharisee

From Hebrew: 'The separate ones.' A Jewish sect who devoted themselves whole-heartedly to the study and practise of the Law or Torah (q.v.) in both its written and oral forms. In the Gospels, they are represented as the opponents of Jesus and as hypocrites concerned exclusively with outward observance of the Law. This judgement was hardened in early Christian debate with the synagogue and needs careful nuancing. If we read the Pharisees from the few fragments of their own tradition that have survived, great Pharisee leaders like Hillel emerge as people with a compassionate and open attitude that anticipates that of Jesus. For example, Hillel summarised the Law as 'do to no one what is hateful to you. Everything else is commentary. Go and learn'. Again, he advised his disciples 'Be like the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace, and drawing everyone near the Torah'.

Post-Modern Approaches to the Bible

Post-Modernism is an intellectual movement which emerged in the latter half of the twentieth century in reaction to the intellectual self-assurance of modernism. In biblical study, modernism was represented by the historical critical approach (q.v.), and its claim to retrieve the history of the text and the intention of the original author with a high degree of certitude. In practice, the results of the historical critical approach were sometimes contradictory. Post-Modernism emphasises instead the awareness that 'meaning' is not so readily accessible, that texts generate not one but many meanings, and the role played by the reader as an active partner in the process of reading a text and uncovering meaning. While the historical critical method emphasised history as the primary tool in approaching the bible, Post-Modernism emphasises the text as primarily a written work, the product of language and prefers to use modern literary techniques which explore the way in which texts communicate meaning, often playfully or elusively.

Prophet

A charismatic individual in the history of Israel who claimed to transmit to his contemporaries the Word of God as a challenge and promise. The prophets were essentially preachers. For the most part, they spoke in highly poetic and symbolic language. The books under the title of the Israelite prophets were compiled not by the prophets themselves but by their disciples.They contain the fragments of the poetic message and stories about the prophet.

Q

Q

The name given to the hypothetical collection of sayings of Jesus which was used by Matthew and Luke in addition to the Gospel of Mark in compiling their Gospels.

Qumran

Place near Jericho where the Dead Sea Scrolls (q.v.) were found.

R

Rabbi

Aramaic title of honour given to Jewish teachers of the Law. It is translated in the NT as 'master' or 'teacher'.

Rabbinic Judaism

The name given to the form of Judaism which emerged after the destruction of the Temple in 70 AD. It was closest to the tradition of the Pharisees than to that of the Priestly classes. The main witnesses to Rabbinic Judaism are found in the Mishnah and Talmud.

Redaction, Redaction Criticism

A method of studying biblical texts which takes account of the changes introduced by the authors as they incorporated existing texts into their own work. These changes can sometimes shed light on the theology of the authors and the message they were attempting to communicate to the first readers. For example, both Luke and Matthew contain forms of the 'Our Father' prayer Jesus taught his disciples. A comparison of the two forms shows that Matthew's form is longer, more polished and reflects aspects of his theology which are absent from Luke's shorter form of the prayer. Luke's version may therefore be closer to the actual prayer taught by Jesus. Another example might be the words which the four evangelists put in the mouth of the dying Jesus: 'My God, my God why have you foresaken me ?'(Matthew and Mark), 'Father, into your hands I commend my spirit' (Luke), 'It is finished' (John).

S

Saduccees

Name given in the Synoptic Gospels to a Jewish group in first century Palestine. They probably belonged to the priestly class and their supporters. The name probably comes from 'sons of Zadok' a priestly caste in the temple.

Samaria, Samaritan

The central area of Palestine between Judea ( q.v.) and Galilee (q.v.) inhabited by a people who practised a form of Judaism but which was regarded as heretical by the religious establishment of Jerusalem. In Old Testament times, Samaria was the capital of the Northern Kingdom of Israel. It fell to the Assyrians in 722 and was settled by the conquerors.

Saying

The name given to short statements ascribed to Jesus in the Gospel tradition (e.g. 'If any one will come after me, let them forget self, take up their cross and follow me'). Many of the sayings were passed on in the oral tradition before being incorporated into the written Gospels.

Sayings Source

(see Q)

Scribe

Literacy in the ancient world was confined almost exclusively to a skilled group of scribes who composed and copied documents. The humbler class of scribes served as copyists and writers of ordinary documents and letters. A higher class of scribes formed an educated administrative elite, a kind of royal civil service. In the NT, the term 'scribe' designates a class whose interests are allied with the Pharisees as the opponents of Jesus.

Septuagint

The Greek translation of the Hebrew Old Testament. According to ancient legend, it was translated in Egypt by seventy scholars in seventy days (hence the name Septuagint 'the translation of the seventy'). The Septuagint was the bible of the early Christian Church. The Septuagint sometimes reveals a text that is different from the standard Hebrew surviving in the Massoretic text, so it is of great importance for the study of the text of the Old Testament (see Textual Criticism).

Social Scientific Criticism

A modern approach to the biblical text which uses the social science (e.g. economics, anthropology, sociology) as a dialogue partner. It is interested in topics such as honour and shame, socio-lingistics, the social setting of Israel and the early Church.

Source

The documents used by an author in composing a work. OT source criticism commonly identifies four sources used in the Pentateuch (q.v.) which it has called J (Yahwist),E (Elohist),P (Priestly), and D (Deuteronomist). NT source critics believe that Matthew and Luke used two common sources in composing their Gospels, viz the Gospel of Mark and a collection of sayings of Jesus called Q (q.v.). They also suggest that they had access to independent sources unique to each e.g. Luke's parabe collection.

Synagogue

From Greek word meaning 'assembly'. A Jewish place for prayer, meeting and the study of the Law and other sacred writings, also know as 'the house of study' beth hammidrash.. Certain rites, especially sacrifice, could only be performed in the temple. The high point of the synagogue liturgy was the reading of the Law followed by a sermon or teaching. Archaeologists have discovered the ruins of many early synagogues in Palestine and elsewhere in the Mediterranean world.

Synopsis [to the Synoptic Gospels, to the Four Gospels]

A synopsis is a book that lays out the same material from each Gospel in parallel colums so that the student can compare the ways in which each version resembles / differs from the others

Synoptic Gospels

The first three Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke) so called because they follow a similar outline (synopsis) of the story of Jesus from his Baptism by John to the Passion. John follows a different outline.

Synoptic Problem

The question of the historical relationship of the three Synoptic Gospel to each other. The are two major ways of explaining the relationship. (1) The older solution holds that Matthew was the first Gospel: it was followed by Luke and Mark (2) The Two Source Hypothesis holds that Mark was the earliest Gospel: Matthew and Luke followed his outline and supplemented it with sources of their own, particularly Q (q.v.) and independent sources (e.g. special parable material found only in Matthew or Luke).

T

Targum

Aramaic (q.v.) translations of the Hebrew Bible. Although most of the extant targums are relatively late, they may indicate how the text was understood at an earlier period.Some targum-like texts were discovered among the Dead Sea Scrolls (q.v.)

Temple

Place of worship of a god where sacrifice was offered and other sacred rites were carried out. Worshippers in ancient temples stood for the most part in open spaces. The central shine was comparatively small and was regarded as the divine dwelling place. Israel was unique in having only one temple in Jerusalem. It was rebuilt several times on the same site, which according to 2 Samuel 24, was bought by David. During the time of Jesus, the temple was undergoing a costly refurbishing scheme undertaken at the expense of Herod the Great.

Temple, Second

Term used for the period of Jewish history spanning the return from Exile to the destruction of the Jerusalem temple under Titus in 70 AD.

Textual Criticism

As ancient texts were copied by hand errors and variants inevitably crept into them. Some of these are relatively straightforward e.g. different spellings of names. At times, the variants are so complex that they can only be explained on the basis of more significant differences in the text which lay before the scribe but which has by now disappeared. Textual criticism is the scientific study of all the possible variants in the text, using the oldest surviving manuscripts in the original languages and the oldest translations (e.g. Latin, Syriac, Coptic). Although it is not possible to resture the 'original text' on the basis of textual critical work, this highly technical branch of biblical study contributes to our understanding of the process by which the texts of the Old and New Testaments have been handed on.

Torah

Hebrew: Law or Instruction. For Jews, the most important part of the bible. In the strict sense, the Torah is the term given to the first five books of the Hebrew Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy ), also known as the Books of Moses or the Pentateuch. The large central section is composed of legal material. Some Jewish groups, especially the Pharisees, also believed in an 'oral torah'; which was handed down by word of mouth from Moses to their own time.

Translations

Most students of the bible work from a modern language translatioan. Studying the text in the original languages is the ideal, and is required at post-graduate level. The Bible has been translated into other languages since earliest times. The Septuagint (q.v.) is the oldest biblical translation:There are two main approaches to translation today. (1) Literal translation attempts to reproduce as accurately as possible the words and sense of the original. (2) Dynamic equivalence translations render the original in the language of today so that readers can readily understand it: it breaks longer sentences into shorter ones, renders some words and phrases in the idom of the target language etc. In practice, most modern translations combine both approaches. The Revised Standard Version (and New Revised Standard Version) lean more in the direction of (1). Popular translations such as the Good News Bible lean more in the direction of (2). Students studying scripture as part of a theology degree are recommended to use a strongly literal translation (e.g. NRSV, Jerusalem Bible, New American Bible). Dynamic equivalence translations (Good News, Christian Community Bible) are helpful for personal reading and prayer, and can sometimes shed light on the meaning of a complex text.

Typology

The process whereby a person, event or thing in the Old Testament is identified as foreshadowing Jesus Christ or an event in the NT. Paul considers Adam, for example, as the type of Christ, the Second Adam, the beginning of a new creation; Melchizedek is regarded by Hebrews as a type of Christ's priestly work; 2 Peter regards the flood as a type of baptism which saves through water.

 

U

V

Vulgate

The official Latin Bible of the Catholic Church. Most of the Vulgate is the work of St Jerome. Jerome corrected and polished earlier Latin versions (Vetus Latina) and in some cases, composed fresh translations from the original languages. A modern Latin translation of the Scriptures, the Neo-Vulgata, is an independent work and not simply a revision of the Vulgate.

W

Wisdom Writings, Wisdom Tradition

The third part of the Old Testament following the Law and the Prophets. The Wisdom tradition includes collections of ancient proverbs and wise sayings, and its roots may have been in the schools for the training of scribes. Wisdom shows comparatively little interest in the cultic aspect of Israel's life. It is however more open to international influences and it is very interested in how people live. Wisdom is a gift from God, but it is also learned from other wise people, especially elders, parents and teachers. Traditional wisdom regarded prosperity as a sign of divine blessing and adversity as a sign of punishment. A more questioning attitude entered into later Wisdom tradition and the question of the suffering of the innocent is raised in books like Job, Qohelth and Wisdom.

 

X

 

Y

 

Z